The Formation Of West African History - 1070 Words

Darien Wellman West African History Dr. Hargrove March 8, 2015 The Formation of West African States In the recent decades, West Africa has been studied and analyzed by multiple geographers and historians. Combined with history of the rise of early civilizations, religious influences and conquests, this region continues to open more dialogue on how these events from its past took place. One subject in particular has also become part of that discussion. That subject happens to deal with the rise and creation of West African states. In this essay, I will discuss how these states were created as well as the multiple ways in which the use of both inside and outside influences helped to shape these various states. After much research, it is clear that many of what would become West African states began with the kingdom of Ghana. According to Roger Gocking, who wrote the book called The History of Ghana, the reason why states started here was because of evidence from the time when Ghana’s kingdom existed. He stated â€Å"archaeol ogical evidence indicates that much of the early Iron Age activity was located in the Volta Basin of northern Ghana. The common occurrence of low-grade iron ore and wood for fuel stimulated iron-smelting industries in this region. As a result, it was not surprising that it was here that centralized states first developed.† As important as the Iron Age was to the early development of these states, it was not the only reason. During this period, Gocking saidShow MoreRelatedIf a Picture Paints...1025 Words   |  5 Pages art played the singular role of portraying history. Whether in the form of cave drawings or sculptures, this art was a tangible representation of the culture, history, and perspectives of the artist and his resulting personal interpretations. 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Community Health And Organizational Dynamics - 1272 Words

Community Health and Organizational Dynamics Our medical staff and our allied healthcare employees have an important role in safeguarding the health of our patient populations. This healthcare organization’s staff has dedicated its efforts to ensure that the community have access to high quality healthcare. In an effort to improve the quality of care, the hospital strives to ensure that even the poorest members of the community receive the highest quality of care. The efforts of our hospital are in accordance with the ACHE Code of Ethics. This code urges members of the medical profession to promote affordable and accessible care (ACHE, 2011). The actions of our hospital are also in accordance with the principle of community benefit. This†¦show more content†¦The closure of this clinic would go against the culture that the healthcare organization has promoted and the mission that it pursues. Healthcare organizations have an obligation to protect vulnerable populations by ensuring that access to healthcare is not hindered (Weber, 2001). This obligation is derived from the principle of common good. According to this principle, organizations need to embrace integrity as they promote the social welfare of communities (Kammer, 2012).The short term goals that the hospital needs to develop to address this problem includes assuring the community and the medical staff that the well-baby and pre-natal clinic remains open. It has been observed that leaders are in the best position to offer direction to their organizations (Stephenson, 2004). As part of its long-term strategy, the new leadership should continue to support the long standing mission of the hospital. As leaders of the hospital, they influence and primarily define the mission statement of the hospital. The entire leadership team of Metropolitan Hospital needs to advocate for the delivery of care to poor and vulnerable populations as this is one of the hospital’s values. The leadership also needs to promote a culture of excellence. The Goals of Medicine and Clinical Quality Respecting the rights of patients is one of the main goals

Challenges faced by Uk economy Free Essays

Erosion’s growth forecast at 0. 8%, next year 1. 3% Global growth expected at 3. We will write a custom essay sample on Challenges faced by Uk economy or any similar topic only for you Order Now 3%, next year 3. 8%, both still termed too optimistic by MIFF, despite revising it the 2nd time this year Auk’s expected growth rate 2. -3. 1%, revised from 3. 8%. 2013-14 growth was 1. 7exports. 6% growth, revision from 2. 2%. All above fgfiguresre for 2014-15 fiscal The dilemma Economy growing despite loans reducing. Shows bad state of manufacturing sector, not good in long run Key interest rates can’t be increased as unemployment still hihighlandacan’te reduced as it will increase inflation Real Growth The nominal figures may fool many, so we show the growth in Real GDGAPince the start of 2013, the I-JKJconomy has experienced positive economic growth – one of the elelatedlyest performances in Europe. However, Real GDGAPs still fractionally below its pre-crisis peak of 2007. The recovery has been stronger in the service sector than manufacturing and industrial output. There are fears the I-JKJecovery is still unbalanced – relying on government spending, service sector and ultra-loose monetary policy. 0AAndhat it might worsen once the key interest rates are increased Real GDGAPs not yet back to the pre-crisis level. The fgfigureshown by us are as per the data currently available in the public domain. And so, it is worth bearing in mind that sometimes economic growth statistics get evbeviest a later stage. 0 Factors affecting growth Self-explanatory Challenges Unemployment Define and introduce the problem on your own. Explain the diagram Reasons Recession – causing cyclical, demand deficient unemployment. With falling real GDGAPfirms are producing less and therefore, there is less demand for workers. Also in a recession, some firms go out of business causing people to lose their Jobs. Structural factors. There is structural unemployment due to the fast changing nature of the economy. For example, manufacturing Jobs have been lost due to the economy becoming more service sector based. Some unemployed workers have found it difficult to get Jobs in new high tech industries because they lack the relevant skills. Problems Increases relative poverty in the UK. (Unemployment benefits are substantially lower than average wages). Unemployment is particularly stressful, causing alienation and reduced living standards. Budgetary cost. Persistently high unemployment adds to the budget deficit. The government have to spend more on benefits, and they receive lower taxes. If unemployment falls, it will be much easier to tackle the budget deficit. In August 2014, Public sector net debt (PSSANDx) was El ,432. biBillion77. 4% of GDGAPIn the short term, government debt is less pressing than the government have claimed. Since 2010, they have given indication that reducing debt levels are the most pressing economic problem. Because of debt, the government have pursued austerity leading to lower growth. I feel the government unnecessarily panicked over debt. Nevertheless, long term spending commitments and long-term debt forecasts are a problem. With an ageing population and perhaps lower growth rates, it could be difficult to finance long-term spending commitments from current tax levels. Debt is a long-term problem rather than short-term. Reasons 2008-13 recession (lower tax receipts, higher spending on unemployment benefits). The recession particularly hit stamp duty (falling house prices) income tax and lower corporation tax. Financial bailout of Northern Rock, RBORBSLlLloydnd other banks. Interest Payments. The cost of paying interest on the government’s debt is very high. In 2011 Debt interest payments were E4EYEillion a year (esest.3% of GDGAP Public sector debt interest payments will be the 4th highest department after social security, health and education. Debt interest payments could rise close to E7Beeniven the forecast rise in national debt. Higher Taxes / lower spending in the future. Crowding out of private sector investment / spending. The structural deficit will only get worse as an ageing population places greater strain on the UKAuk’sension liabilities. (demographic time bomb) Potential negative impact on exchange rate. Potential of rising interest rates as markets become more reluctant to lend to the I-JKJovernment. Inflation CPICPnflation rate: 1. 5% (expected) Inflation is currently a relatively minor problem because it has fallen to be within the ovoverpayment’sarget. However, with rising energy prices, it could resume its upward trend in the coming months. This cost-push inflation is a problem because with low nominal wage growth, many could see a fall in living standards (causing an increase in fuel poverty). Also, savers may be adversely affected because interest rates are low. Reasons Rising energy prices Low real wages Fall in living standards Increased poverty Current Account Deficit The deterioration in the UK current account is a cause for some concern because it is occurring in a recession. Usually a recession leads to lower imports and an mpimprovementn the current account. This deterioration in the current account suggests the I-JKJould have declining international competitiveness, though it may also be a temporary situation related to EuRezonerisis. Reasons Overvalued exchange rates. Countries in the EuRezonehich became uncompetitive (e. . Greece, Portugal and Spain) experienced large current account deficits. This is imports are cheaper. This encourages domestic consumers to buy imports. It also makes it hard for exporters because they are relatively uncompetitive. High Consumer Spending. If there is rapid growth in consumer spending, then there tends to be an increase in imports causing a deterioration in the current account. For example, in the 19sassoom, we saw a fall in the savings rate and a rise in I-JKJonsumer spending; this caused a record current account deficit. The recession of 1991 caused an improvement in the current account as import spending fell. Unbalanced Economy. An economy focused on consumer spending rather than investment and exports will tend to have a bigger current account deficit. Competitiveness. Related to the exchange rate is the general competitiveness of irrimsIf there is a decline in relative competitiveness, e. g.GriRisingage costs, industrial unrest, poor quality goods – then it is harder to export causing a deterioration in the current account. Recommended Solutions Reduce consumer spending – through tight fiscal and tight monetary policy. E. g.GhiHigherncome tax will reduce disposable income and therefore reduce spending on imports (however, it will also lead to lower economic growth) Supply side policies to improve competitiveness Devaluation of the exchange rate. This makes exports cheaper and imports more expensive Poor lalaborroductivity LaLaborroductivity measures the output per worker in a period of time. LaLaborroductivity is an important factor in determining the productive potential of the economy. Reasons LaLaboroarding. (When firms hold onto workers). Unemployment has risen by a smaller amount in the ’08-’12 recession – compared to previous recessions in 1981 and 1991, and now unemployment has fallen to 6. 2% . This could support the theory that firms are preferring to hang onto workers, despite lower demand. Firms may feel this prevents having to rehire and retrain workers after the recession ends. Though he length of this current recession makes this surprising, and it’s uncertain why it’s happening in 2008-12 more than previous recessions. Low levels of investment. The credit crunch has held back investment because firms struggle to gain finance or don’t have the confidence to invest in new capital. This could hold back lalaborroductivity growth. Falling real wages. During the recession, the I-JKJas seen falls in real wage growth. If real wages are lower, firms may be more willing to employ lalaborather than capital. In other words low wage growth means lalabors relatively more attractive than usual. Therefore with lower lalaborosts, firms are willing to employ more workers and lalaborntensive production methods. Lower output Lower wages – With falling productivity, firms cannot afford wage increases. This is leading to depressed income tax receipts for the government. Lack of Infrastructure Investment The recession has seen a fall in public sector investment. This threatens long-term there are also concerns over other supply side problems, such as inflexible lalaborarkets and lack of vocational skills. External Factors Many of the I-JKJroblems are due to domestic factors: low spending, low investment, egactiveutput gap. However, because the I-JKJelies on trade with other countries, especially Europe, external factors are a potential problem. How to cite Challenges faced by Uk economy, Papers

Parasite Biology and Parasite Molecular Typing Essay Sample free essay sample

Toxoplasmosis. a disease caused byToxoplasma gondii.is a complex zoonotic disease. Infection withT. gondiiamongst human public is high sing its prevalence of about 15-85 % ( Howe 1995 ) . The highest incidence rate of human Toxoplasmosis occurs in Europe specifically in France ( occurs up to 55 % ) . Approximately 22. 5 % of the United States population. 12 old ages old and above has been infected with this protozoan ( CDC 2008 ) . In assorted host species. the prevalence rate ofT. gondiiinfection is between 30 to 40 % . These protozoon parasites are widely studied due to its omnipresent nature ; and. high morbidity and mortality of the disease it caused. The capableness ofT. gondiito hedge the hosts’ immune mechanism enables this protozoon coinage to do chronic infections. It is for this ground thatT. gondiiis categorized as among the most successful protozoon parasites. Any warm-blooded animate beings every bit good as worlds can be infected with this obligate intracellular parasite calledT. gondii. Toxoplasma gondii. the protozoon parasite that cause Toxoplasmosis belongs to kingdom Protozoa. phylum Apicomplexa ( Chan 2007 ) . It is a ~8- µm-long and 2- µm diameter banana-shaped being. The size of the atomic genome of this protozoan is about 80 Mb. The monoploid genome of this protozoan coinage has 14 chromosomes that sums to 65 Mbp in size and embodies about 7900 cistrons ( Saeij 2007 ) . In an negatron microscope the individual karyon. chondriosome. plastid. interrelated endoplasmic Reticulum web. Golgi setup. and secretory cell organs clustered apically can be visualized.T. gondiiis non capable of reproducing outside the nucleated cell of its host but its tachyzoites phase can last in the environment for long periods of clip ( Joiner 2002 ) . Cats serve as unequivocal hosts ofT. gondii. In this host. their manner of reproduction is merely sexual reproduction in the enteric epithelial cells. Among the assorted secondary and intermediate hosts of this protozoon though. both sexual and nonsexual reproduction occur ( Howe 1995 ) . The life rhythm ofT. gondiiis complicated with several phases despite holding merely the cats as the unequivocal host ( Dubey 1998 ) . Toxoplasma gondiihas three infective phases: the tachyzoites normally in groups or ringers ; the bradyzoites found in tissue cysts ; and the sporozoites in the oocysts. The beginning ofT. gondiireproduction in their unequivocal host is the formation of infective oocysts that are shed to the environment through fecal matters. Then. the oocysts within 2-3 yearss in the fecal matters will sporulate into sporozoites. Oocysts can be ingested by adult male and other animate beings through nutrient and H2O contaminated with an morbific cats fecal matters. The oocyst will tear in the bowel let go ofing the morbific sporozoites that will perforate the intestine of its secondary host: adult male and other warm-blooded animate beings ( Chan 2007 ) . Sporozoites undergo rhythms of generation and after these cycles’ tachyzoites are produced. This morbific phase ( tachyzoites ) is approximated to be 2 to 6 µm. crescent shaped. and with conoidal front tooth and rounded buttocks. Despite being devoid of motive power cell organs. the tachyzoites can flex. semivowel. undulate. and rotate. These capablenesss of the tachyzoites enable them to make their mark cells. Tachyzoites enter the circulation of the secondary host to infect the nucleated cells. Their reproduction and issue from cell to cell within the secondary host is rapid therefore the parasite’s airing in the organic structure of the host is instead speedy ( Chan 2007 ) . It is suggested that the map of the cone. micropores. rhoptries. and micronemes nowadays in the tachyzoites is for incursion in the host cell and constitution of an intracellular development needed by tachyzoites to last. The apical composite ofT. gondiiwherein the cone is a constituent is a large factor in the invasion of the morbific tachyzoites in the host cells therefore it is widely studied today. An aim in the specific surveies of theT. gondiiapical composite is to understand its composing ( particularly the proteins ) and its map. Goals of surveies sing theT. gondiiapical complex include the development a drug that will aim this parasite constituent and be effectual anti-toxoplasma medicine ( Hu 2006 ) . Entry of the tachyzoites into the host’s cell is through host cell plasmalemma incursion or phagocytosis. This is possible through the use of distinguishable surface proteins that facilitates the fond regard and invasion. These proteins are recognized to be SAG1 and SAG2A. Due to the really immunogenic property of these proteins their look is suggested to be attractants of the unsusceptibility of the host easing the ordinance of virulency during infection ( Jung 2003 ) . Through repeated endodyogeny the tachyzoites multiply asexually within the host’s cell. The endodyogeny is a specific signifier of nonsexual reproduction in which inside the parent parasite two offspring signifier ( Dubey 1998 ) . The division of the tachyzoites occurs every 7 hours in a synchronal mode ( Dzierszinski 2004 ) . After the endodyogeny. the tissue cysts that contain bradyzoites form in the encephalon and musculus. The cysts of bradyzoites divide easy in the encephalon or musculus for old ages and will merely hold new rhythm of tachyzoites if there is induction in their proliferation ( Chan 2007 ) . Bradyzoites distinction is an asynchronous reproduction uniting endodyogeny and endopolygeny-schizogony. The division of the bradyzoites is slower than the tachyzoites because it asynchronously divides about every 12 hours whereas the tachyzoites are estimated to split every 7 hours ( Dzierszinski 2004 ) . The bradyzoites are immune to gastric juices ( stomach acids and pepsin ) . This belongings of the bradyzoites enables them to be morbific orally because they are non killed in the tummy of their host. Bradyzoites can last up to 2 hours in the tummy of their host whereas the tachyzoites are easy killed ( within 1 hr ) in the tummy of the host. The decease of bradyzoites after two hours in the tummy of the host is non due to pepsin but instead to the stomachic acids ( Dubey 1998 ) . Assorted strains ofToxoplasma gondiiexists around the universe. The single features of the different strains were studied to clarify the correlativity between different manifestations of the disease and the different pathogenicity of the strains. AlthoughToxoplasma gondiihas assorted strains those identified in Europe and North America were classified into three distinguishable clonal line of descents: type I. type II. and type III. The strains were grouped into these three clonal line of descents through the use of assorted methods of word picture such as limitation fragment length polymorphism ( RFLP ) . isoenzyme cataphoresis. PCR. or random amplified polymorphism DNA ( Fuentes 2001 ) . Categorization and designation of the specific strains ofT. gondiinow involves use of the new diagnostic tools. The familial typewriting methodological analysiss for this protozoan for illustration are widely conducted across the Earth. Amongst the tools utilized in the familial typewriting of this protozoan is multilocus enzyme cataphoresis. The value of this tool for familial typewriting intents ofT. gondiihas been widely accepted. The restriction of this methodological analysis though is the demand for high sums of purifiedT. gondiitachyzoites that are hard to obtain due to the comparative slow division features of someT. gondiistrains. The clip required to get at an equal sum of tachyzoites for cataphoresis analysis is between 1 to 2 months with perennial transitions in cortisone-treated mice ( Darde 2004 ) . A more direct attack in familial typewriting of theT. gondiistrains is restriction fragment length polymorphism ( RFLP ) analysis. The restriction though of this method is the same with that of the cataphoresis analysis in footings of the production and purification of the protozoan tachyzoites. The other restrictions of this method are the use of 32P-labelled investigations and the high degree of trouble in the reading of the informations gathered from the trial. Fingerprinting of theT. gondiiisolates utilizing the BS or TGR investigations is the primary application of RFLP. The random amplified polymorphous DNA polymerase concatenation reaction ( RAPD-PCR ) utilizing four arbitrary primers was observed to bring forth Deoxyribonucleic acid fragments that distinguish the mice non-virulent and deadly strains ofT. gondii. This methodological analysis though is non widely used due to the greater penchant of PCR typing methods with sequence-specific primers ( Darde 2004 ) . Cost. handiness of sequenator. and proficient support are considerations in taking the technique to be utilized in familial typewriting ofT. gondii. Detection of polymorphisms at different base brace degree and sensing of polymorphous endonucleases limitation sites for developing a PCR-RFLP method can be straight done utilizing the Deoxyribonucleic acid sequencing methods. Use of a individual marker throughout the process of this method will enable the designation of more or less polymorphism. In GRA6 sequences analysis for illustration there was a high degree of polymorphism detected in which 9 allellic sequences where identified among the 30 strains. The GRA6 PCR-RFLP technique could merely separate three groupings ofT. gondiistrains. In typewriting of theT. gondiiisolates. PCR-RFLP technique on individual copy-genes is widely used ( Darde 2004 ) . Continuous technological developments led to the find of microsatellites. short tamdem repetitions of 2 to 6 bases. as familial markers. The length of fluctuation of the repetitions generated by these markers enables them to be extremely polymorphous and manifest multiple allelomorphs that expose diverse information utile in familial surveies. With merely a little sum of DNA. PCR technique can measure the polymorphism of microsatellite. After the rating. size of allelomorphs can be done with high confidence of dependability utilizing automatic sequencing with fluorescent primers ( Darde 2004 ) . Designation of the strains ofT. gondiiis based on their disease presentation in mice. The bulk of the strains identified are non-virulent and these strains produce symptomless to chronic infections in the mice they infect. In some deadly strains ofT. gondiieven if there are less than 10 morbific tachyzoites inside the organic structure of the mouse. they are still capable of doing acute toxoplasmosis taking to the decease of infected mouse ( Darde 2004 ) . The RH and BK strains which are normally utilised as an antigen beginning during serological trials for everyday diagnosing are the deadly strains ofT. gondii. Cultures in mouse cells have been the proliferation method used to continue these strains in the past decennaries. Strains ofT. gondiithat were late isolated from septic worlds are avirulent in mice though they produce chronic infections taking to the development of encephalon cysts in worlds ( Bohne 1993 ) . The use of the tachyzoites of the non-cyst forming RH strain ( Type I ) ofT. gondiilead to the outgrowth of a new concern. This is whether the RH strain tachyzoites evolve during the uninterrupted transition for diagnostic trial reagents purposes. This concern is important in nosologies intents because any alteration in the cistron look of theT. gondiiRH strains will hold a bearing in theT. gondiiinfection diagnosing. In line with this. a survey was conducted by Marvinet Al.in 2004. The consequences of the survey showed that there was a consistence in the B and Q line of descents produced tachyzoites and stableness in their cistron look was observed despite the multiple transitions. The tachyzoites that were produced though from the J line of descent were observed to hold an unstable and unsuitable growing every bit good as a altering cistron look during multiple transitions. The survey concluded that anomalousnesss were existing in the different stocks ofT. gondiitherefore they sugg est that those line of descents with uninterrupted development in cell civilization should non be utilized for diagnostic intents ( Mavin 2004 ) . Immunoprecipitation. isoenzyme analysis. molecular familial techniques. and western smudge with polyclonal antisera are used to show the differences in the strains ofT. gondii. The virulent and avirulent strains can be differentiated by using some serological and familial markers. The RH and BK strains ofT. gondiiincorporate a virulence-associated 23-kDa antigen that was identified utilizing a mouse monoclonal antibody ( MAb ) . The non-virulent strains have polymorphous clonal line of descent while the virulent strains posses a individual limitation fragment pattern suggestive of a individual clonal line of descent ( Bohne 1993 ) . The three types of T. gondii clonal lines have phenotypic differences such as continuity. initiation of cytokine look virulency factor. attractive force of different cell-types. and migratory capacity. Phenotypic differences among the different genotypes of T. gondii were observed in surveies of mice. The virulency capacities of the three clonal line of descents were as follows: Type I- extremely virulent. Type II- comparatively non-virulent. and Type III- comparatively virulent. The overstimulation of a Th1 immune response taking to the attendant pathology was partially a factor in the virulency betterment of Type I strains of T. gondii ( Saeij 2007 ) . The different strains of T. gondii have varied antigenic features. This has been demonstrated by the assorted familial and serological techniques ( Delibas 2006 ) . The differences in the antigenic belongingss of the strains of this protozoan might hold an consequence in their virulency capacity as their varied pathogenesis. Aside from their differences in the antigenic features of assorted strains there are other belongingss that vary. Amongst the three clonal line of descents. polymorphism fluctuates from 1 % to 3 % at the amino acerb degree and restricted to merely 2 allelomorphic categories non sing the familial venue. It is implicated so that the three distinguishable clonal line of descents and rarer types ofT. gondiiwere formed through the mixture of merely two allelomorphs ( Kong 2003 ) . The correlativity ofT. gondiigenotypes with the badness of toxoplasmosis in worlds remains obscure. The Type I strains of this protozoon were often associated with AIDS patients and those immunocompromised patients with perennial optic toxoplasmosis. The bulk of the infections in worlds and animate beings though were caused by Type II strains. The extremely infective strains and most likely to do infection in immunocompromised persons were type I strains whereas the most frequent causal agents of human toxoplasmosis either in AIDS patients or in babies was Type II strains. The most deadly and infective strain amongst the assortedT. gondiistrains is still unsure ( Khan 2005 ) . The map of virulency in the F1 offspring developed from crosses of the type II and the type III strains ofT. gondiiwas made to place the venue involved in the virulency of the strains of this protozoan. There were five venues identified and amongst them. two manifested a familial composing holding protein kinase as the cardinal molecule ( ROP18 and ROP16 ) . These two proteins identified were hyperviable rhopty proteins which the protozoan secretes into the host cell during cell invasion. This protein kinases which are alone to the phylum Apicomplexa are correlated to this pathogen’s interaction with its host ( Saeij 2007 ) . Saeiji et Al ( 2006 ) besides conducted linkage function of the venue involved in the protozoon’s transition of the host cistron look. It is indicated in their survey that the different strains ofT. gondiihave specific differences in their transition of the host cell written text which is mediated by ROP16. This polymorphous protein is injected into the cell of the host by theT. gondiiprotozoan upon their invasion of the cell ensuing change of the host’s signal transducer and activator of written text signaling tracts ( Saeji 2006 ) . TheT. gondiiprotozoan therefore has the capableness to release protein kinases and shoot it to the host cell and alters its signaling tracts.T. gondiihas a broad storage of effecters that can step in with the diverse signaling tracts of the host therefore assisting the protozoan evade the mechanisms of the hosts’ immune system ( Saeiji 2006 ) . These effecters might be factors in the virulency capacity of theT. gondiistrains and might besides explicate their intricate capableness to hedge the host immune system. A factor in the virulency feature of T. gondiiis the growing rate. InT. gondiithe correlativity of the growing rate and virulency is said to be present. The figure of parasites infecting a host is straight relative to the sum of stimulation that can be induced by the parasites in the immune system of the host. High the Numberss of parasite in the organic structure of the host cause greater opportunities of overstimulation of the host’s immune system. Finally. high production of cytotoxic assistant T cells ( Th1 ) . elevated degree of cell decease and greater harm in the variety meats of the host occurs. Due to the high virulency feature of type I strains. merely one tachyzoite of this type will be plenty to bring forth high degree of parasite tonss and high sum of Th1 cytokines. High Numberss ofT. gondiitype II strains though will besides bring forth the same high degrees of Th1 cytokines and pathology with that of merely one tachyzoite belonging to the type I strain. In spite the deadly feature of Type I strains. higher tons of the non-virulent type II and type III will still bring forth equal pathology and Th1 cells to merely one tachyzoite type I infection. Therefore. because of the high antigenic burden due to the higher figure of morbific parasites present in the host. it can b e expected that there will be higher immune pathology ( Saeij 2005 ) . In the yesteryear. these phenotypic differences were merely observed in the strains present in mice but late these phenotypic differences were besides recognized inT. gondiistrains that cause human infections. In a survey done by Kong et Al ( 2003 ) . the strains that cause infection in worlds were identified utilizing an enzyme-linked immunosorbent check. Infection serum reacted with polymorphous peptides obtained from Toxoplasma antigens SAG2A. GRA3. GRA6. and GRA7 were besides utilized in the process. The bulk of the isolates identified belong to the three clonal line of descents ( type I. type II. and type III ) . It was observed in the survey that polymorphous linear antigenic determinants have strain-specificity. A common antigenic determinant was observed in type I and type III that was non detected in the type II strains. The SAG2A. GRA3. GRA6. and GRA7 antigens ofT. gondiiwere able to accurately place the clonal line of descent responsible for infection in mice. In trials utilizing human serum samples. merely the GRA6 was able to right place the type II from the non-type II infections in the presence of equal antibodies to T. gondii. The serotyping with the use of the GRA6 antigens implies that most of the infections of the patients tested were caused by type II strains of T. gondii. The failure of checks utilizing SAG2A and GRA6 to separate merely between type II or non-type II strain is due to the indistinguishable allelomorphs in type I and type III at SAG2A and GRA6. The type I and III strains besides have an about indistinguishable belongings at GRA6 and GRA7. The check will be able to place all the different types of clonal line of descent in human infections if there will be an allele specific peptide obtained from assorted location ( Kong 2003 ) . The ultimate end of researches singT. gondiiis to hold on the mechanism of varied capacity ofT. gondiigenotypes to arouse disease in worlds. Bing able to find the badness of the disease elicited and immune responses of the hosts infected in relation to the genotype doing the disease will be of great significance to the intervention and bar ofT. gondiiinfections. The badness of the disease caused and the immune response of the septic host varies with the strain that infects the host. Due to this strain related fluctuation. different surveies have been conducted to qualify and place strains that pose different wellness hazards to worlds and animate beings. Different strains ofT. gondiipossess different antigenic features that were demonstrated through the use of mAb techniques. isoenzyme analyses. RFLP. random amplified polymorphous DNA. and Western Blotting ( Songul Bayram Delibas 2006 ) . Toxoplasma gondiihas assorted manners of transmittal including consumption of oocysts shed in the unequivocal host’s fecal matters. consumption of tissue cysts present in undercooked meat. and inborn or perpendicular transmittal. Amongst the carnivores and omnivores. consumption of septic meat from secondary hosts and direct transmittal from the cat through the morbific oocysts are the premier mechanism of parasite transmittal ( Hide 2006 ) . In herbivores for case like the sheep. the primary manner of transmittal is through the cat whereas inborn transmittal is undistinguished ( Duncan 2001 ) . In a recent survey though. the information gathered through PCR based sensing check implies that vertical or inborn mechanism of transmittal is high in sheep. Due to the vegetarian diet of the sheep it is improbable that they will get infection through consumption of meat with T. gondii sarcocyst. It is so concluded that ovine infection withT. gondiiis non merely due to cats but the pe rpendicular manner of transmittal is extremely important. In worlds. the major manners of transmittal are: the consumption of the parasite nowadays in tissue cysts of uncooked meat ; consumption of nutrient and H2O contaminated with oocysts from fecal matters of septic cats ; and transplacental or inborn transmittal. Aside from these manners though.Toxoplasma gondiican besides be transmitted through blood transfusion and organ organ transplant ( Singh 2003 ) . Transplacental manner of transmittal is considered to be comparatively rare in worlds and often correlated to severe pathology in the affected progenies ( Hide 2006 ) . Except for congenital. organ organ transplant. and blood transfusion manners of T. gondii transmittal there were no other human to human manners of transmittal observed( CDC 2008 ). The primary manners of transmittal mentioned supra do non adequately explicate the diverseness of the hosts infected byToxoplasma gondii. This led to theories that other manners of transmittal such as infection through skin lesions and arthropod transmittal is possible. Due to the other suggested paths ofToxoplasma gondiitransmittal. surveies have been conducted to verify there are other important mechanisms of transmittal. Among these is the survey by Sroka et Al ( 2003 ) sing the potency of the tick –Ixodes ricinusas an arthropod vector of this protozoon. Prior to this survey there were associations of human toxoplasmosis to bites from ticks every bit good as surveies that isolatedToxoplasma gondiifrom of course infected ticks. The survey by Srokaet Al.( 2003 ) confirms the potency ofIxodes ricinusticks as vectors ofToxoplasma gondii. In the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis it is therefore possible forIxodes ricinusticks to be a vector in the transmittal of the causative protoz oon ( Sroka 2003 ) . The followers are risk factors that were enumerated by epidemiologic surveies: close propinquity with seropositive cats ; eating altogether or undercooked meat ; having a cat ; horticulture ; eating altogether or common veggies ; changeless contact with dirt ; hapless manus hygiene ; infrequent lavation of kitchen knives ; and going outside of Canada. Europe. and United States. There were surveies conducted though that shows that having a cat even in pregnant adult females and those with compromised immune system is non correlated with any hazard ofT. gondiiinfection. In states in which feeding of undercooked meat is a pattern. there is an discernible addition in theT. gondiiseroprevalence. Examples of countries where this eating wont is widely practiced and their seroprevalence is high are: sub-Saharan Africa. France. and tropical countries of Latin America. In a survey done in France. the possibility of adult females being infected withT. gondiiare equal to those of ages capable of kid bearing and onwards ( Jones 2001 ) . In the survey by Joneset Al.( 2001 ) . it was learned that theT. gondiiseroprevalence in all ages is 22. 5 per centum and 15 per centum amongst the childbearing adult females. Compared to France. states in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa the United States have a low seroprevalence ofT. gondii. In a multivariate analysis. amongst the three racial and cultural groups included in the survey it was learned that immigrants have higher seroprevalence. The fluctuations in the seroprevalence amongst different states was concluded to be associated with the sumT. gondiiin meat ; exposure to the dirt and cat fecal matters ; nutrient saving ; and eating wonts of the people ( Jones 2001 ) . Since veterinaries and veterinary staff frequently handle cats which are the unequivocal hosts ofT. gondii. it was suggested that they were of higher hazard of infection withT. gondii. In 2003. a survey was conducted by Shuhaiberet Al.to verify this thought every bit good as determine if pregnant adult females having cats are besides at greater hazard of infection withT. gondii. It was concluded nevertheless in the survey that veterinaries and veterinary staff that are frequently exposed to cats have no increased hazard of being infected withT. gondii. It was besides concluded in the survey thatT. gondiiis non correlated to having a cat ( Shuhaiber 2003 ) . In worlds.Toxoplasma gondiiinfection in healthy grownups will attest as a mild or symptomless infection that led to the formation of cysts that are largely situated in the septic individual’s encephalon. Immunocompromised patients such as those with AIDS on the other manus have fatal happenings due to the reactivation of cysts which leads to intellectual toxoplasmosis. Congenital acute infection with this protozoon consequences in serious and frequently fatal unwellness in babes. Toxoplasmosis in babies normally causes intellectual and optic harm. Congenital human toxoplasmosis occurs in babies born to female parents that are infected with T. gondii prior to or during gestation. TheT. gondiiinfection is passed to the foetus through placental transmittal. In the United States. the estimated incidence of inborn toxoplasmosis is from 400 to 4000 instances yearly ( Jones 2001 ) . The clinical manifestation of inborn human toxoplasmosis depends on the undermentioned factors: age at the clip of primary infection. immune position of the host. and the virulency of the strain ofT. gondiithat infects the host. Toxoplasmosis when acquired congenitally is more terrible in pathology than that of postnatally acquired infection. The badness of the infection in babies and the possibility that the infection shall be passed to the baby varies harmonizing to the trimester of gestation in which the female parent is infected. During the class of the gestation. earlier infection of the female parent corresponds to higher degree of infection badness in the baby. Thus. an infant whose female parent was infected with T. gondii during the first trimester of gestation shall hold a more terrible infection compared to an baby whose female parent was infected with T. gondii during the 3rd trimester of her gestation ( Singh 2003 ) . Congenitally acquired toxoplasmosis does non attest during early old ages of the infant’s life but can develop subsequently on. The clinical conditions of inborn toxoplasmosis in kids are: chorioretinitis. hydrocephaly. mental deceleration. intracerebral calcification. hepatosplenomegaly. loss of hearing cholangitis. pancytopenia. and decease. Other manifestations of this infection in congenitally septic kids are: lymph node expansion specifically in the cervical part. musculus achings. concerns. and sore pharynx. This disease status is most frequently non diagnosed in kids ( Singh 2003 ) . Infection withT. gondiiof patients that are immunocompromised can be life endangering. The manifestation of the disease does non needfully intend a freshly acquired infection because latentT. gondiiinfection is possible. The illustrations of immunocompromised patient that are at hazard of geting toxoplasmosis are: transplant patients undergoing immunosuppressive therapy. malignant neoplastic disease patients. and AIDS patients. It is estimated that amongst the AIDS patients 3 to 10 % of them die due to toxoplasmosis. The prevailing pathology in T. gondii infected AIDS patients is encephalitis but other variety meats may besides be affected ( Singh 2003 ) . In immunocompetent patents around the universe. toxoplasmosis is the most frequent cause of posterior uveitis and intraocular redness. In United States entirely. it is estimated that 30 to 50 % of the posterior uveitis instances are caused byT. gondiiinfection. During subclinical infections there are no discernible alterations in the retina of the host. During times of host immune suppression. the cyst that is situated in the retina of the host will tear thereby let go ofing the bradyzoites into the retina. This event can do redness and so after mending a chorioretinal cicatrix can be existing and within or next to this the cyst will stay inactive ( Wu 2007 ) . Neutropenia ( depletion of the nuetrophils ) occurs during instances of toxoplasmosis taking to the suppression of the immune system. The depletion of the neutrophils duringT. gondiiinfections causes the development of multi-organ lesions that include the liver. lien. encephalon. and lung. There is besides diminished ability to fabricate early gamma interferon ( IFN-? ) . interleukin-12 ( IL-12 ) . and tumor mortification factor alpha ( TNF-? ) . The population of splenetic assistant T lymphocytes ( Th ) and natural slayer ( NK ) cells besides occur in T. gondii infected host. The neutrophils have a important function in battling the tachyzoite reproduction therefore depletion occurs ( Bliss 2001 ) . The neutropenia and the damage of the host’s immune system enable the parasite to retroflex uncontrollably in the organic structure of the host and any secondary infection will be damaging to the wellness of the host. Asymptomatic manifestation of toxoplasmosis in grownup worlds and animate beings is due to the effectual protection of the immune system that includes extracellular moving antibodies and intracellularly moving T lymphocyte factors. The unequal protection from the immune system and late acquisition of unsusceptibility consequences into uninterrupted parasite generation and devastation of the host’s cells that manifest as multi-organ lesions. Often the causes of decease due to toxoplasmosis are pneumonia and phrenitis ( Frenkel 1988 ) . Animals and worlds have more or less the same manifestations of toxoplasmosis. In black-footed Mustela nigripess the clinical marks of acute toxoplasmosis include lassitude and anorexia whereas in chronic toxoplasmosis corneal hydrops. ataxy. glaucoma. and decease were observed. The most prevailing clinical mark in chronicT. gondiiinfections in Mustela nigripess involves the cardinal nervous system wherein it is manifested as moderate to mild posterior failing. ( Burns 2003 ) Diagnosis ofToxoplasma gondiiinfection in worlds and animate beings involves serological trials. In the past the serology tools for the diagnosing ofT. gondiiinfection in worlds presented assorted jobs therefore assorted alternate methods emerged. The jobs found when utilizingT. gondiiserological nosologies included: expensive diagnostic tools. inaccessibility of the showing plans. decelerate and sometimes arduous method. and low sensitiveness in diagnosing of early infection. The alternate diagnostic tools forT. gondiiinfection in 1980’s include the agglutination ( AG ) trial. This methodological analysis is really simple and commercial kits were so available that were made in France but this technique lacks sensitiveness due lower titre generated compared to the dye trial ( DT ) and the conventional immunofluorescent- antibody ( IFA ) trial. Hence. most frequently false negatives were obtained utilizing the AG trial. Another drawback of the AG trial is the deficiency of spec ificity wherein the sera that are negative in both the DT and IFA trials were positive on the AG trial. The drawbacks of the AG trial were due to the host’s Ig M ( IgM ) binding to the surface of the parasite. Diagnostic trials utilized in the finding of infection in worlds involve the measuring of the Ig G ( IgG ) with the employment of immunoflourescent antibody ( IFA ) check and enzyme immunochemical assay ( EIA ) trials. In pregnant adult females though the estimate of the clip of infection is important therefore the diagnostic trial besides involves the measuring of Ig M ( IgM ) combined with other trials such as the eagerness trial ( CDC 2008 ) . Other diagnostic trials forT. gondiiinfection are: parasite observation in specimens from bronchoalveolar lavage stuff ( immunocompromised patients ) or lymph node biopsy ; mouse inoculated with blood and other organic structure fluids from patients. this demonstrates the parasite by the usage of serological techniques on the inoculated mice at fit clip intervals post vaccination ; and. familial stuff sensing with the usage of PCR during inborn infections in utero ( CDC 2008 ) . In infection. withT. gondii.in healthy and non-pregnant individual’s intervention is non necessary because the clinical marks normally resolve within a few hebdomads. Whereas. persons that are pregnant or immunocompromised like AIDS patients need to be treated with drugs like pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine ( CDC 2008 ) . The manners of action of these drugs are folic acerb hostility and suppression of the dihydropteroic acerb synthesis. severally ( Mui 2008 ) . In ego restricting instances of systemic acquired toxoplasmosis. intervention is non frequently recommended. The instances of optic toxoplasmosis though necessitate intervention affecting the ternary drug therapy composed of pyrimethamine. Orasone. and sulfadiazine. There is besides a quadruplicate therapy wherein clindamycin is added to the ternary therapy. The usual intervention continuance ranges from 4 to 6 hebdomads depending on the patient’s response to the therapy. Photocoagulation or cryotherapy as surgical intervention of optic toxoplasmosis are used but cautiousness is employed due to the surgical complications that include vitreous bleedings. intraretinal bleedings. and withdrawal of the retina ( Wu 2007 ) . Due to the high morbidity. mortality. and fiscal costs for health care in infections withT. gondiiassorted surveies have been conducted to come up with a drug that will kill the morbific phases of this protozoan and remedy toxoplasmosis around the Earth. Among the merchandises of these surveies is the drug known as dihydrotriazine JPC-2067-B ( 4. 6-diamino-1. 2-dihydro-2. 2-dimethyl-1- ( 3? ( 2-chloro- . 4-trifluoromethoxyphenoxy ) propyloxy ) -1. 3. 5-triazine ) . The manner of action of this drug is the suppression of the dihydrofolate reductase ( DHFR ) inT. gondii. Based on the effectivity and toxicity proving utilizing mammalian cells. dihydrotriazine JPC-2067-B is extremely effectual against T. gondii strains. Growth civilizations of T. gondii were hindered by this drug by suppressing the purified enzyme and it is more effectual than pyrimethamine. Oral and parenteral disposal of this drug is besides effectual against the tachyzoites ofT. gondiicultured in vivo. It was conclude d in their survey that JPC-2056/JPC-2067-B has higher effectivity compared to the medical specialties employed today for toxoplasmosis intervention. Aside from being potentially more effectual. this drug is besides potentially less toxic compared to the drugs used for intervention ofT. gondiiinfections today ( Mui 2008 ) . The immunocompromised people and those extremely affected by the disease caused byT. gondiibelongs to the 3rd universe states. The necessity for medical specialties that are effectual against this protozoan. without toxicity. and affordability is pressing. The instances of pregnant adult females being infected with this protozoan besides necessitate the handiness of drugs for toxoplasmosis therapy that are non-teratogenic. Another consideration in the preparation of drugs againstT. gondiiis increased capacity to perforate the encephalon and the oculus because these variety meats were the common infested by this protozoan ( Mui 2008 ) . These assorted factors need to be considered to be able to bring forth drugs that can battle this universe broad protozoan job. The hunt for the toxoplasmosis remedy should non halt until it is eradicated in all the parts of the universe. Huge sum of information aboutT. gondiihave been obtained from surveies around the Earth. The three clonal line of descents do non hold the same virulency and pathogenecity therefore farther surveies sing this affair demand to be conducted. Surveies sing the pathogenecity of the different strains in different hosts besides need to be studied farther. The protagonism of assorted persons in battling toxoplasmosis will finally take to the preparation of more effectual drugs to eliminate this planetary zoonotic disease. Mentions Bliss. S. G. . LC ; Alcaraz. A ; and Denkers. E ( 2001 ) . ‘Neutrophil Depletion during Toxoplasma gondii Infection Leadsto Impaired Immunity and Lethal Systemic Pathology. ’Infection and Unsusceptibility69 ( 8 ) : 4898–4905. Bohne. W. G. . U ; and Heesemann. J ( 1993 ) . ‘Differentiation between Mouse-Virulent and – Avirulent Strains of Toxoplasma gondii by a Monoclonal Antibody Acknowledging a 27- Kilodalton Antigen. ’Journal of Clinical Microbiology31( 6 ) : 1641-1643. Burns. R. W. . ES ; O’toole. Donal ; and Dubey. JP ( 2003 ) . ‘TOXOPLASMA GONDII INFECTIONS IN CAPTIVE BLACK-FOOTED FERRETS ( MUSTELA NIGRIPES ) . 1992– 1998: Clinical SIGNS. SEROLOGY. PATHOLOGY. AND PREVENTION. ’Journal of Wildlife Diseases39( 4 ) : 787-797. CDC. C. f. D. C. a. P. ( 2008 ) .Toxoplasmosis. Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) [ on-line ] available from lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. gov/toxoplasmosis/ gt ; [ 9 April 2008 ] Chan. A. ( 2007 ) .Protozoa as Human Parasites. MicrobiologyBytes [ on-line ] available from lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. microbiologybytes. com/introduction/Parasitology. hypertext markup language gt ; [ 9 April 2008 ] Darde. M. ( 2004 ) . ‘Genetic Analysis of the diverseness in Toxoplasma gondii. ’Ann 1st Super Sanita40( 1 ) : 57-63. Delibas. S. E. . H ; and Ertug. E ( 2006 ) . ‘Evaluation of atigenic fluctuations between two virulent toxoplasma strains’Journal of Medical Microbiology55: 1333–1335. Dubey. J. P. L. . D. S. ; and Speer. C. A. ( 1998 ) . ‘Structures of Toxoplasma gondii Tachyzoites. Bradyzoites. and Sporozoites and Biology and Development of Tissue Cysts. ’Clinical Microbiology Reviews11( 2 ) . Duncan. P. T. . RS ; Smith. JE ; and Hide. Geoff ( 2001 ) . ‘High degrees of inborn transmittal of Toxoplasma gondii in a commercial sheep flock. ’International Journal for Parasitology31: 1699- 1703. Dzierszinski. F. N. . Manami ; Ouko. Lillian ; and Roos. David S. ( 2004 ) . ‘Dynamics of Toxoplasma gondii Differentiation. ’Eukaryotic Cell3( 4 ) . Frenkel. J. ( 1988 ) . ‘Pathophysiology of toxoplasmosis. ’Parasitology Today4( 10 ) : 273-278. Fuentes. I. J. M. R. r. . Carmen ; and. Alvar. Jorge ( 2001 ) . ‘Genotypic Word picture of Toxoplasma gondii StrainsAssociated with Human Toxoplasmosis in Spain: Direct Analysisfrom Clinical Samples. ’Journal of Clinical Microbiology39( 4 ) : 1566-1570. Hide. G. W. . RH ; Morley. EK ; Hughes. JM ; Thomasson. D ; Gerwash. O ; Elmahaishi. KH. Murphy. RG ; and Smith. JE ( 2006 ) . ‘Evidence for High Levels of Vertical Transmission in Toxoplasma gondii. ’International Congress of Parasitology. Glasgow. Scotland. United Kingdom. Howe. D. K. a. S. . David ( 1995 ) . ‘Toxoplasma gondii Comprises Three Clonal Lineages: Correlation of Parasite Genotype with Human Disease. ’The Journal of Infectious Diseases172: 1561-1566. Hu. K. J. . Jeff ; Florens. Laurence ; Fraunholz. Martin ; Suravajjala. Sapna ; DiLullo. Camille ; Yates. John ; Roos. David S ; and Murray. John M ( 2006 ) . ‘Cytoskeletal Components of an Invasion Machine—The Apical Complex of Toxoplasma gondii. ’PLOS Pathogens2( 2 ) : 13. Joiner. K. A. a. R. . David S. ( 2002 ) . ‘Secretory traffic in the eucaryotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii: less is more. ’The Journal of Cell Biology157( 4 ) : 557–563. Jones. J. L. K. -M. . Deanna ; Wilson. Marianna ; McQuillan. Geraldine ; Navin. Thomas and McAuley. James B. ( 2001 ) . ‘Toxoplasma gondii Infection in the United States: Seroprevalence and Risk Factors. ’American Journal of Epidemiology154( 4 ) . Jung. C. L. . CYF ; and Grigg. ME ( 2003 ) . ‘The SRS superfamily of Toxoplasma surface proteins. ’The International Journal for Parasitology34: 285- 296. Khan. A. S. . C. ; German. M ; Storch. G. A. ; Clifford. D. B. ; and Sibley. L. David ( 2005 ) . ‘Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii Strains from Immunocompromised Patients Reveals High Prevalence of Type I Strains. ’ Kong. J. -T. G. . Michael E. ; Uyetake. Lyle ; Parmley. Stephen ; and Boothroyd. John C. ( 2003 ) . ‘Serotyping of Toxoplasma gondii infections in Humans Using Synthetic Peptides. ’ Lake. R. H. . Andrew ; and Cressey. Peter ( 2002 ) . RISK PROFILE: TOXOPLASMA GONDII IN RED MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS. Christchurch. New Zealand. Institute of Environmental Science and Research Limited ( â€Å"ESR† ) . Mavin. S. J. . AWL ; Ball. J ; and Ho-Yen. DO ( 2004 ) . ‘Do Toxoplasma gondii RH strain tachyzoites evolve during uninterrupted transition? ’J Clin Pathol57: 609–611. Mui. E. S. . GA ; Milhous. WK ; Hsu. H ; Roberts. CW ; Kirisits. M ; Muench. S ; Rice. D ; Dubey. JP ; Fowble. JW ; Rathod. PK ; Queener. SF ; Liu. SR ; Jacobus. D ; and. McLeod. R ( 2008 ) . ‘Novel Triazine JPC-2067-B Inhibits Toxoplasma gondii In Vitro and In Vivo. ’PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases2( 3 ) : 190. Saeij. J. ( 2007 ) .Toxoplasma. MIT DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY [ online ] available from lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //web. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. edu/biology/www/facultyareas/facresearch/saeij. hypertext markup language gt ; [ 9 April 2008 ] . Saeij. J. B. . JP ; and Boothroyd. JC ( 2005 ) . ‘Differences among the three major strains of Toxoplasma gondii and their specific interactions with the septic host. ’Tendencies in Parasitology12( 10 ) : 476- 481. Shuhaiber. S. K. . Gideon ; Boskovic. Rada ; Einarson. Thomas R ; Soldin. Offie Porat ; and Einarson. Adrienne ( 2003 ) . ‘Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection among veterinary staff in Ontario. Canada ( 2002 ) : Deductions for teratogenic risk’BMC Infectious Diseases3. Singh. S. ( 2003 ) . ‘Mother-to-child transmittal and diagnosing of toxoplasma gondii infection during gestation. ’Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology21( 2 ) : 69-76. Songul Bayram Delibas. H. E. a. S. E. ( 2006 ) . ‘Evaluation of antigenic fluctuations between two virulent toxoplasma strains’Journal of Medical Microbiology55: 1333–1335. Sroka. J. C. -B. . Jolanta ; and Dutkiewicz. Jacek ( 2003 ) . ‘IXODES RICINUS AS A POTENTIAL VECTOR OF TOXOPLASMA GONDII. ’Ann Agric Environ Med10: 121-123. Wu. L. ( 2007 ) .Toxoplasmosis. eMedicine [ online ] available from lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. emedicine. com/OPH/topic707. htm gt ; [ 9 April 2008 ]

The Kea speaks from Dunedin Botanical Gardens Essay Example

The Kea speaks from Dunedin Botanical Gardens Paper In The Kea speaks from Dunedin Botanical Gardens written by Janet Frame, an idea worth learning about is how people, including the readers, will not or do not reach their full potential due to being trapped or restricted. By using the kea in the text, Frame Is able to show the significance of the Idea as the Kea compares the life of the readers to itself. Frame portrayed the importance of this idea through the use of connotative language, metaphors and contrasting language. Frame shows how people, including the readers, will not or do not reach their full attention due to being trapped or restricted Is an Important Idea through connotative language. Connotative language was used in the text to portray and enhance the negative meanings and ignorance within the text. Connotative language Is used throughout the poem but a specific example of Its use may be found within the sentence: While the peach-faced lovebirds huddle together close to the earth In this sentence, the words with connotations are huddled and close. The word huddled refers to the contact between the two birds and close to the distance or pace between those birds and the earth. In context, the words may seem positive, but are negative because the Minimal meaning Is of how people solely stay nearby each other and will only keep notice of, as well as keep close to, the ground. Through deeper meaning, this means that even though people may be trapped, they have chosen to, pretended to, or do not notice themselves being imprisoned and will tolerate the conditions they are In. We will write a custom essay sample on The Kea speaks from Dunedin Botanical Gardens specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Kea speaks from Dunedin Botanical Gardens specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Kea speaks from Dunedin Botanical Gardens specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Their Ignorance is what limits and encases them, whether or not they are aware. Negative connotations used within the text may also e found in the first stanza as while my neighbor three cages away cries, Woe O Woe. This example consists of connotative words, including cages, cries and woe. All these words have negative meanings attached to them as cages imply Imprisonment and restrictions, cries imply deep sorrow and troubles, and woe with grief and distress. The meanings of these words are relative to the idea of being unable to reach our full potential or aspirations as the words include meanings that would restrict an average person from fulfilling his/her goals. Frame portrays the Idea with the thoughts of how being trapped also means to be limited and all the negativity of the feelings involved will bring a person from achieving and reaching their own best. By being unable to distinguish whether or not they are free, it will either bring confusion to the person affected or go by unnoticed and is another reason as to why the mall idea of limitations Is worth learning about. By using connotative language such as those In the examples shown, Frame Is able to implement more negativity into the text so the reader is able to truly grasp how readers being trapped is. This feeling will then enumerate with the feelings the reader will have when questioning his/her own freedom. Through Frames use of connotative language, she has shown the Importance of the Idea and why It was 1 OFF poem. Janet Frame used also used metaphors as a technique within the text. By using this technique, Frame is able to show the comparison between the kea and the readers/ people. An example of the use of metaphors may be found within the beginning of the second stanza: l too, like you, have a ceiling of wires to my aspirations. Through this example, Frame is able to give the readers a sense of imprisonment and limitations of their freedom and choice. Frame purposely used metaphors for a psychological reason; to make the readers question their own freedom as well as others. Through the strategic use of the seas current state, Frame makes a direct comparison and portray the significance of the idea by the use of metaphors so the readers would recognize the mutual states between the kea and herself/himself. Frame also used a metaphor in the last stanza of the text to enhance and deepen the dead and its significance by the lines If you were to write a poem about me you would say, Pity the seas imprisonment. But it would be yourself you pitied in your own prison. This metaphor develops the idea of the readers and people being caged and restricted, therefore not being able to reach their full potential or aspirations and adding to the idea of limitations. This metaphor also compares the mutual states between the readers and people, and the kea. These metaphors are worth learning about as they may be related back to modern society because many people, including he reader, have restrictions and limits to their full potential and aspirations, whether or not they are the cause of it. There is a vast range of factors that limits us as humans, such as family, friends, culture, religion, our surroundings, educations, wealth, health and even ourselves. Within peoples everyday life, these restricting factors may occur, but may go unnoticed by those affected by it. Another notable technique used by Frame was contrasting language. Contrasting language was used to deepen the comparisons between the readers and people, and the kea. It was also used to deepen the significance of the idea and develop the thoughts of the readers and his/her freedom. In the first and last line of the poem, l have learnt how to walk upside down like a fly and you have not yet learned to walk upside down like a fly, Frame deliberately used contrasting language so the reader would have closure that would have been linked with the beginning. This adds to the structure of the text, therefore the readers would be more considerate of the poem as a whole and acknowledge the main idea and significance of the poem while reading links and connections between the multiple language features. In this example, you are able to notice that she has shown the idea of restriction by comparing the difference in skill between her readers/people and the kea. In the poem, this shows that even though we seem to be free and the kea trapped, the kea has gained more skill than we have. The thoughts the readers would have when reading the contrasting language and meaning behind it, make it an idea worth learning about. Contrasting language was also used later in the first stanza, as well s the last as l can sense, though not see, the sky. And you can both sense and see the sky. By this example, Frame expresses the senses and the limitations of them. Another sense, is able to recognize where it is, whereas the readers are able to both sense and see the sky. This reinforces the idea of how we are free but also trapped. Frame has used contrasting language here to provoke the thoughts of the readers about their freedom and choice. This technique relates to the idea worth learning about beca use through the use of contrasting language, Frame influences he idea of imprisonment and limitations. People of modern society will assume they are free because they can both sense and see the sky but are actually controlled by limiting factors in their lives that prevent them from reaching their aspirations and reach their full potential. In Frames mind, she created this commendable poem to compare and contrast the differences and similarities between the readers and people, and the kea. The idea of how the people, including the readers, can not reach their full potential due to limitations is definitely an idea worth learning about in The Kea speaks from Dunedin Botanical Gardens by Janet Frame. Frame emphasizes this idea through the use of connotative language, and by adding deeper meaning to her text, is able to show the significance of the idea. She also used metaphors by making direct comparisons for the reader to develop more of an understanding. To then further develop the idea, Frame used contrasting language, in order for the reader to consider more carefully the idea. By using these techniques, Janet Frame is able to portray the significance of the idea and why it was worth learning about.

Intact is One Word

Intact is One Word Intact is One Word Intact is One Word By Maeve Maddox Ive seen too many examples of intact written as two words to go on assuming that they are typographical errors. Photo caption: A couch that was left in tact after the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center. Question on medical forum: Is chest muscle left in tact after MastX? Question on aviation site: Why are there only 2 Stukas left in tact today? The adjective intact is written as one word. It means whole, entire, not affected by anything that injures. Ex. An animal that has not been spayed or neutered is said to be intact. The literal meaning of intact is untouched. The in prefix means not. The tact comes from a verb meaning to touch. The noun tact has the same origin. An obsolete use is sense of touch. Now the words main use is figurative: tact ready and delicate sense of what is fitting and proper in dealing with others, so as to avoid giving offence, or win good will; skill or judgement in dealing with men or negotiating difficult or delicate situations; the faculty of saying or doing the right thing at the right time. (OED) As for intact, lets keep it, well, intact. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:16 Substitutes for â€Å"Because† or â€Å"Because Of†One Fell Swoop10 Tips About How to Write a Caption

Hospitality Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Hospitality Management - Essay Example As the discussion declares milk as animal products was fermented under natural conditions which resulted to sour milk products with acidity. The development of milk processes developed into natural preparation of yoghurt and cottage cheese. Over the years, the preparation of milk products has developed including coagulation of milk protein. This led to the need for preservation of milk products so that they would be stored for relatively long without spoiling. The intuition and creativity of man in the ancient times led to the innovation of various preservation techniques. These included storage of milk products in cellars and caves, salting and control of humidity. Nonetheless, processes such as salting changed the taste of the food products a challenge which motivated more innovation in food preservation. This paper stresses that developments such as dehydration and molding illustrate endeavors in the preservation of cheese products. These developments paved way for the modern introduction of various chemicals for the preservation of cheese and other milk products. The invention of refrigeration is a significant development in the food industry in general which also enabled cheese to be stored for a long time without decay. The use of various chemicals in food preservation has led to long shelve life of cheese. The most significant developments in cheese production include the possibilities which have enabled producers to maintain the flavor, texture and taste of cheese for a long time and thus making it appealing to the consumers for a relatively long duration .

Distinctive HR Policies and Practices Research Paper

Distinctive HR Policies and Practices - Research Paper Example The research paper "Distinctive HR Policies and Practices" talks about such distinctive HR policies and practices as compensation and benefits, training, organizational culture, flexibility in the scheduling and methods for attracting and retaining employees by the example of company Mayo Clinic. Mayo Clinic developed slowly with the help of the medical practice of a pioneer doctor known as Dr. William Worrall Mayo. Over time, the demand for the medical services increased and other doctors and science researchers were asked to join the world’s first private integrated group practice. Doctors and students came from around the world to learn new techniques from the Mayo Doctors, and patients came from around the world for diagnosis and treatment. Mayo Clinic consists of over 55,000 doctors, nurses, scientists, students, and allied health staff at Mayo Clinic locations in the Midwest, Arizona, and Florida. Their mission is to inspire hope and contribute to health and well-being by providing the best care to every patient through integrated clinical practice, education and research. The health benefits provided by Mayo Clinic can be said to be unique as they are tailored towards preventive rather than curative direction. These health benefits cover both full-time and part-time employees and residents who are in the Mayo School of Graduate Medical Education. This health benefit plan according to the CNN rating is not 100% as it is a non-profit organization with only an annual $3 billion, but it covers the children. (who are under 3 years of age). Among the offered health benefits covers includes a fitness center that is onsite and a gym membership both at a subsidized cost. It has outpatient health services (which are provided b y their medical specialists within their clinics which assist in cutting their expenditure on insurance services). There are also

General Motors Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

General Motors - Essay Example During the duration of its existence, General Motors has engaged in the production of models that target specifically the baby boomers generation. This constitutes of a younger generation who are aggressive bout simple, stylish models that go with fashion. Latest statistical analysis points out that the company has targeted customers in mid 20 who accounts for almost 50% revenue returns from the sale of vehicles (GM, 2014).Economic analysisGeneral motors’ has played a considerable role to the development of the United States and a global economy. Based on the national financial reports of the United States, the company has contributed a higher percentage of economic development for a longer duration since its launching into operation. Not only to the United States, has General Motors’ also had a huge economic impact in its areas of operations. In essence, the organization has triggered operations of the other industries such as aluminum and textile that supply raw mater ials to the industry. In addition, the company has also created job opportunities both directly and indirectly to a significant number of populations.Political//legalWith influence from both the government and members of the public, the company has constantly implemented different policies to harmonize mutual coexistence of all members of the society with customers invoking dominance on to the progress of the business. With the current trend in modern life, most members of the society associate status of life with the car the person drives.

Effectiveness of Loyalty Schemes for Supermarkets

Effectiveness of Loyalty Schemes for Supermarkets Chapter 1 Introduction It is necessary for organisations to carry out market research before they can come up with a good quality marketing strategy no matter how big or small the company is. Market research is when an organisation studies their customers buying habits and gathers information about the market. The information they find is then analysed to determine the expectations of customers. Market research is necessary because organisations should aim to be marketing orientated and meet the wants and needs of their customers. As well as meeting the wants and needs of customers marketing orientated companies welcome change. This means they can react to external factors and changes in the market like changes in consumer spending patterns. It is a lot easier for an organisation to put together a good marketing strategy if they are marketing orientated and have carried out the appropriate market research to identify the wants and needs of their target market. It is essential for an organisation to satisfy its customers. Meeting customer needs will improve the organisations reputation amongst its customers which will result in a higher profit and could make potentially make customers loyal to the brand. In 1995 Tesco introduced their Clubcard. This was the first customer loyalty card introduced in the UK and there are now 13 million Clubcard members. (MIS Quarterly Executive Vol.8 No.2/June 2009, Leveraging Multichannel retailing: the experience of Tesco.com) Loyalty programs are not just used by companies to offer benefits to regular shoppers and reward customers for their loyalty. Every time a customer uses their loyalty card in store organisations record what products that customer has purchased to find out their specific wants and needs. If the research shows that a product is more popular with customers in a certain area then an organisation could introduce offers to meet customer needs. Therefore loyalty programs are used as a form of market research. The majority of major retailers in the UK now offer loyalty programs. Therefore the purpose of this research is to examine the benefits and drawbacks of these programs to both organisations and customers to see weather actual loyalty can be obtained through one of these programs. There must be major benefits of Loyalty programs otherwise they would not be so popular. However not every organisation like Asda does offer a loyalty program so the purpose of this research is to determine whether they are worth investing in. If the majority of customers who shop in an organisations store own loyalty cards is the company able to process all of the information they have gathered. A loyalty card will also only show the retailer what a customer spends in their specific store and not their general buying habits. A customer may buy their weekly shopping in Tesco and use their Clubcard yet may buy meat from another supermarket or from a local butcher. If Tesco knew this they could introduce offers to encourage customers to buy meat in their store. The Clubcard however would not provide Tesco with this information. Despite this Tesco could use their Clubcard to identify changes in consumer buying patterns. A customer can however own as many loyalty cards as they want which means they can supply information to many different organisations. When customers sign up to a loyalty program they have to provide name, address, age group and often email address allowing the organisation to contact them regularly with offers. With this information the organisation offering the scheme can understand what kind of person is buying certain products. This helps them segment the market and identify the target market for any product. This research is important and of value because organisations will benefit from it if they are considering investing in a loyalty scheme. This research will also help companies understand the advantages and disadvantages of loyalty programs and identify ways they can make the most of the large amounts of data they gather from customers. This research will also be off interest to customers who have signed up to loyalty programs and people involved in business. There are many aims and objectives of this research. The first aim is to understand what loyalty actually is and the importance of loyal customers. Is it actually possible for an organisation to obtain loyalty with a customer? If so can this be achieved through one of these programmes? Also is it possible to measure just how loyal customers are? The second aim is to study the history of loyalty cards and programs and find out which organisations along with Tesco where first to introduce loyalty cards and gain an understanding of how rapidly the trend has grown since both in the UK and internationally. This information will help organisations understand how loyalty cards became so popular with retailers. The third aim of this research is to find examples of how the information gathered from customers using their loyalty card in store has benefited organisations when they determine their marketing strategy. This research will determine whether it is possible for a retailer to process all the information provided by loyalty programs considering how popular they are with customers. Is there any reason why a major retailer like Asda does not offer a loyalty program when a lot of its direct competitors do? This study will also help identify how organisations can benefit from loyalty kiosks. The fourth aim of this research to understand whether loyalty programs really benefit customers or whether its just organisations that get the main benefits. In a lot of cases customers have to spend a lot of money in the retailers store to gain loyalty points and money off products. Despite this organisations can use loyalty programs to determine which products are popular with customers and introduce offers. Therefore being part of a loyalty program could benefit the customer without them really realising it. This study will also help identify how customers can benefit from loyalty kiosks. The final aim is to investigate the different types of loyalty programmes organisations offer and the advantages and disadvantages of the various programmes. This information will hopefully help organisations determine which type of loyalty scheme is most appropriate for them to invest in. All the aims of this project will be achieved by gathering information obtained through secondary research. A large proportion of this research will be gathered from the academic journals. Research will also be gathered from relevant information found in books, articles, newspaper reports and case studies. Previous literature will be reviewed and critically analysed. After this the research methods will be described and results of this research will be discussed, analysed and related back to relevant theory shown in the literature review. The study will then be concluded showing any limitations. The main lessons learnt from this study will be described showing what future research should be conducted. Chapter 2 Literature Review What is loyalty? Can it be purchased? The word loyal is defined in the oxford English dictionary as being â€Å"true to obligations of duty and love† although it is hard to imagine the average consumer feels this way about the supermarket where they buy their groceries. (Uncles, Dowling and Hammond 2003) argue that it is not possible for a consumer to have an emotional attachment towards a brand of tomato soup. Even if customers are not loyal many retailers may have their personal information stored in their computer database. (Rowley 2000) understands that it is very difficult for supermarket to encourage actual loyalty and claims that â€Å"the very technology that supports innovations such as loyalty cards may serve to undermine the concept of loyalty.† Many people believe that true loyalty is not actually attainable through loyalty programs and that the main purpose of these programs is to provide management with information. (Jenkinson 1995) strongly believes this and claims that: â€Å"The customers loyalty is simply not for sale. It cannot be bought for ever by companys ordeals. Real brand loyalty results from an emotional bond created by trust, dialogue, frequency, ease of use and a sense of value and added satisfaction. Loyalty is the reflection of a customers subconscious emotional and psychological need to find a constant source of value, satisfaction and identity.† (Jenkinson 1995) does make a valid point but it is still possible to obtain loyalty through loyalty programs its just not very easy. (Stone et al 2004) believe that customers are unlucky to become loyal to an organisation just from being part of one of these schemes. However they understand that a scheme could produce information that could help an organisation find ways to offer suitable rewards to meet the needs of customers which is likely to lead to loyalty amongst customers. (OBrien and Jones 1995) extend this theory and understand that the only way an organisation can obtain loyalty through a loyalty programme is if the organisation offers rewards that are of value to the customer. They claim there are 5 elements that determine value. (see appendix) Even though loyalty can be obtained through loyalty programmes it is necessary that every employee at the organisation is fully committed to the program. Therefore as well as any initial financial investment there also needs to be an investment in staff training when an organisation introduces a loyalty card. (Omar 1999) understands this and believes that a loyalty program will not be successful unless everyone within the organisation is committed. This includes the cashier who simply smiles and asks a customer if they own a loyalty card. (OConner 1996) shares this opinion and understands that customers will come back to a store and become loyal customers if employees are friendly. As well as being fully committed to their loyalty program organizations need to be sure that customers are not just signing up to their loyalty program just for the sake of it. (Omar 1999) understands that some customers may sign up to a loyalty scheme just to get the discounts and may not be actually loyal to the organisation. It is important that Organisations are aware of this when starting up a loyalty program. Even though (OBrien and Jones 1995) have already shown that an organisation can obtain loyalty through a loyalty programme if they offer rewards that are of value to the customer there are also many other factors that can affect how loyal customers are. (Wright and Sparks 1999) have identified that it is possible to achieve customer loyalty through a number of means. This includes where the store is located and how easy it is to access. Also the loyalty of customers very much depends on the quality and price of the goods being sold. (Bellizi and Bristol 2004) understand that a consumer that is part of a lot of loyalty schemes is more likely to be affected by other factors and judge a supermarket on the speed of its checkout lines and its variety of fresh produce. (Gounaris and Stathakopoulos 2004) extend this theory and suggest that customer loyalty is something that can be influenced by a combination of 3 factors. These are the reputation of the brand and the amount of choice available in the market, social influences and recommendations from peers and the degree of risk aversion from the consumer themselves. According to them these influences can create four types of loyalty: No loyalty Covetous loyalty: This is when a consumer has a strong attachment to a brand possible due to social influences yet there is no purchase. Many customers may be interested in premium brand products but choose to buy a less expensive alternative to save money. Inertia loyalty: This is when a customer purchases a certain brand due to habit or convenience but has no emotional attachment to the brand itself. A customer may choose one supermarket over another simply because it is closer. Premium loyalty: This is what every organisation should aim for. It is when a customer regularly buys a companys products due to a high attachment to the brand. However customer loyalty is obtained it is important not to under estimate the value of having loyalty customers. Every organisation should be aiming to encourage loyalty. (Omar 1999) understands the importance of customer loyalty and points out that a store is likely to be unsuccessful without loyal customers because they are likely to buy more products and will be willing to pay more. They are also more likely to recommend the organisation to friends and family which will bring in new customers. Organisations usually have to spend a lot of money on promotions to try and attract new customers to a business. It costs a less money for an organisation to obtain customers then it does to attract new ones. Also once customers are loyal to an organization they are less likely to be interested in the promotions other companies are offering. (Christopher and McDonald 1995) therefore understand that by retaining customers an organization could stop new companies from wanting to enter the market. (Halowell 1996) has also found evidence to show that there is a definite connection between the loyalty of customers and the amount of profit an organisation makes. (Oliver 1997) correctly sums up customer loyalty by defining it as. â€Å"A deeply held commitment to re buy or re patronize a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby causing repetitive same-brand or same brand-set purchasing despite situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behaviour.† (Whyte 2004) suggests that loyalty programmers may just create customer loyalty for short amount of time that may not result in full commitment. This however isnt true because there are major differences between loyalty schemes and incentive schemes. (Hirshman and Goldstucker 1978) understand that loyalty programs are more long term and can help an organisation improve its reputation amongst customers and establish a relationship. This is definitely true as general incentive schemes are likely to be short term promotions or offers to make customers interested in a specific product or just to draw their attention to the brand. Loyalty programmes are therefore a lot more expensive to run then simple incentive schemes but a lot more beneficial at the same time. Loyalty schemes can even help organisations come up with appropriate short term offers and promotions which can be directly issued to the target market. (OConner 1996) has identified that incentive schemes are usually a final resort for organisations if their loyalty scheme fails. Even though (OBrien and Jones 1995) have already shown that an organisation can obtain loyalty through a loyalty programme if they offer rewards that are of value to the customer it is still very difficult for an organization to measure how loyal its customers are. (Omar 1999) identifies that Store loyalty is a function of customer satisfaction. This is definitely true as satisfied customers are more likely to keep coming back to the store and become loyal customers. However (Omar 1999) goes on to suggest that a number of variables can be used to determine how loyal a retailers customers are. (See appendix) The variables listed above could definitely be used to measure the satisfaction of customers. Despite this customers may appear to be satisfied and still decide to shop somewhere else if they are attracted by promotion. Therefore it is very difficult for an organisation to measure actual levels of loyalty. The History of Loyalty programs and Loyalty cards Organisations have been aiming to encourage customer loyalty for a long time and the introduction of loyalty cards has definitely helped them achieve this goal. Loyalty cards are now very popular both in the UK and internationally. (Sharp and Sharp 1997) have identified that since loyalty cards have been introduced, they have been used effectively by organisations to increase levels of satisfaction amongst customers. Further research will be conducted to show examples of this. Today the majority of retailers now offer loyalty schemes. (Rowley 2007) is aware of the popularity of Loyalty schemes and identified that they are now â€Å"an established feature of the retail and services landscape.† (Uncles, Dowling and Hammond 2003) suggested that competitors are likely to copy a loyalty scheme if it appears to be successful. This seems fairly understandable as organisations are often influenced by the activities of the competition. OMalley (1998) realises that there is a chance customers may begin to expect a reward every time they visit a store as loyalty cards have led to them being bombarded with promotions and money off vouchers for products they regularly buy. The above literature suggests that the introduction of loyalty cards is the only reason for organisations being so obsessed with obtaining the loyalty of customers. It is obviously a major factor but (Omar 1999) has identified that loyalty schemes have been growing in popularity for a lot longer than this and suggests that â€Å"such a remarkable shift to loyalty-building activity has been made possible because the cost of recruiting each consumer into a loyalty scheme has fallen substantially in real terms since the early 1970s.† (Omar 1999) also believes that the popularity of loyalty schemes may lead to their downfall by understanding that the majority of loyalty schemes are now run in pretty much the same way. He is therefore able to identify that the differentiation these schemes provided when they first became popular is slowly being lost. This could well be the reason why Asda have chosen not to invest in loyalty scheme even though the majority of their direct competitors have. (Omar 1999) even suggests that: â€Å"loyalty cards could start a more sophisticated round of mark-down wars which held the high street stores to ransom in the late 1980s and early 1990s.† However this seems unlikely. How loyalty programs benefit the organisation: (Walters and Hanrahan 2000) have been able to identify the numerous benefits for organisations that use loyalty programmes to store the purchasing details of their customers. Loyalty schemes can help an organisation decide where it places its products and how they allocate their space in store. They can also use the information they have stored in a database to introduce in store promotions and offers on products where they have identified interest from customers. Loyalty programmes can also more importantly help an organisation find out who its target market is. Tesco have had a lot of success since launching their very successful Clubcard scheme. (Uncles, Dowling and Hammond 2003) have identified that Tesco have been able to use their Clubcard to aid brand extension. Tesco have definitely shown that they understand the importance of customer loyalty. (Turner and Wilson 2006) were however able to identify Clubcard is not the only reason for Tescos loyal customers and major market growth. It is necessary for an organisation to know who its target market is and offer rewards to the right customers. (OBrien and Jones 1995) understand that it is important for organisations to consider the value of their customers. If they fail to do this an organisation may waste time and money satisfying the customers of less value whilst the greater value customers are not satisfied and loose loyalty as a result. An article by (Media Week 2009) suggested that loyalty schemes with the most members may not be the most successful ones. The article described how â€Å"todays loyalty efforts are more concerned with the quality of membership and not just the quality.† This makes sense as organisations are aiming to obtain loyalty and therefore dont just want customers to sign up for loyalty schemes just to get the discounts. It is still difficult to understand how a retailer is able to process all the information provided by loyalty cards considering how popular they are with customers. (Uncles, Dowling and Hammond 2003) identify that a popular loyalty scheme is likely to gather a lot of unnecessary data which is of no use to anyone. (Omar 1999) therefore suggests that â€Å"any loyalty scheme must be driven by a database to ensure that it adds a significant new element rather than being simply another promotional activity.† (Omar 1999) makes a very valid point although organisations are still dealing with a very large amount of information.. Loyalty cards have become increasingly popular within the last few years due to advances in technology like the growth in computer memory capacity (OConnor 1996) believes that it is therefore now possible for an organisation to track, identify and respond to the buying behaviour of customers. Also with this information a retailer can contact customers through direct mailing. (Passingham 1996) argues that not all customers who shop in a retailers store will sign up to a loyalty scheme so some of the data that is being stored may be inaccurate. Loyalty schemes also dont provide retailers with information about customer buying habits outside of that specific store. However a large proportion of regularly shoppers are likely to be part of the organisations loyalty scheme so this is unlikely to be a serious concern of organisations as they will still be able to get an overview of the buying habits of specific groups of customers. One of the main reasons that customers may refuse to sign up to a loyalty scheme is because they are worried that the organisation may give out their personal information to third parties. (Sarathy and Robertson 2003) have identified that customers may be concerned about their privacy when it comes to loyalty schemes due to recent corporate mismanagement scandals. However customers will be less likely to worry about this if they are attracted to the rewards being offered by the scheme. The following research by (Schriver 1997) which was carried out just as loyalty cards were becoming popular in the UK. He was able to identify 6 factors that surprisingly made consumers less loyal today than in the past. He also identified that the 6 factors can increase consumer doubt leading to more complaints and a lower level of loyalty as well as greater price sensitivity. How loyalty programs benefit customers (Potter 1998) identifies that customers deserve to be treated well by organisations. This is true as they are unlikely to come back and re visit a store if the experience they received was not a pleasurable one. It is clear that loyalty cards benefit organisations but how much do they benefit customers. (Schultz and Bailey, 2000) believe the rewards that customer receive are simply given to them as compensation for the information they provide. This section proves that this is not entirely correct and that loyalty programs can benefit customers. Despite this (Uncles, Dowling and Hammond 2003) have identified that the main reason organizations invest in loyalty schemes is because they expect the program to benefit them. This is because the main aim of any business is to make a profit and being marketing orientated and meeting the needs of customers is the main way of achieving this aim Rowley (2000) has identified that loyalty style kiosks are becoming an increasingly popular way for organisation to encourage loyalty amongst customers in the USA. She describes how the kiosks themselves are placed at the front of stores and she is able to identify that they offer a lot more benefits then simple promotional leaflets. By offering one of these kiosks organisations are therefore likely to increase the satisfaction of their customers. This is because they are likely to feel valued as they get to choose their rewards instead simply being given a voucher they could potentially discard. Omar (1999) has already identified that loyalty is function of customer satisfaction. Despite customers receiving points every time they use their card in store (Omar 1999) believes that a number of schemes are purely set up to provide retailers with a database so that they can advertise their products directly to customers via emails. This is definitely a valid opinion. Therefore research will be carried out to find examples of how organisations have used their schemes in order to contact target groups of customers directly. If customers dont benefit from an organisations loyalty scheme the business is unlikely to be successful (Dowling and Uncles 1997) point out that this may make customers frustrated resulting in them losing loyalty. Different types of Loyalty Programs: There are many different types of loyalty programmes which can be used by organisations offering a wide variety of products and services. There is no single type of loyalty programme that is guaranteed to be successful. A study from (Wanswink 2003) showed that brand managers believe that all loyalty programmes can have an impact on the buying behaviour of customers. The study also showed that the most cost-effective loyalty programmes were the low and moderate ones. However another study by (Gordan and Mckeage 1997) showed that loyalty programmes are more likely to be successful if the organisation is offering a product or service that the customer considers to be high involvement because of the financial, social and physical risk involved. American express also offer a club yet they charge a fee to join. Although this could prevent customers from joining the loyalty programme (Shiffman and Kanuk 2007) can see a benefit of this by suggesting that â€Å"this increases the customers investment in the relationship which may lead to greater commitment and increased usage loyalty† Some companies reward loyal customers by giving them points so they can gain more goods or services from the organisation. This kind of point system is very popular with hotel chains and airlines. (Shiffman and Kanuk 2007) believe that this could act as an exit barrier because customers would have to give up the points if they started a new relationship. Chapter 3 Methodology Now that the relevant literature has been reviewed further research has been conducted to examine the benefits and drawbacks of loyalty programs to both organisations and customers. The purpose of this research was too help organisations who offer loyalty cards identify ways in which they can make the most of the information they gather whilst benefiting organisations that dont currently offer a scheme by helping them identify if loyalty schemes are beneficial or not. Customers who are part of loyalty programs and people involved in business will also benefit from this research. Several aims and objectives of this research were established before the research was carried out. The first aim was to find out what loyalty actually is and whether actual loyalty can be obtained through a loyalty scheme. After this the history of loyalty cards and loyalty programs were researched to identify how rapidly the trend grew in the UK and internationally. This was followed by research into the benefits of loyalty programs for both organisations and customers and research into the different types of loyalty programs in which customers can sign up for. In the end all research that was conducted was secondary and not primary. This was partly due to insufficient funds as it would cost a lot of money and take a lot of time to arrange interviews with members of the major organisations that were studied. There were also plans to hand out questioners to people in supermarkets although these never went ahead due to ethical reasons. Despite there being some limitations of this study all the information found from the secondary research did relate to the aims and objectives and therefore will be of benefit to the reader. The research process consisted of examining several articles, various figures and company websites in order to achieve the aims and objectives. The majority of this research was taken from journals, newspaper articles and from The Grocer magazine. A number of case studies were also examined during the research process. An article in the Grocer from the 18th April 2008 entitled â€Å"Service with a smile† was examined because it described some of the various ways organisations could encourage loyalty amongst customers. However one of the main purposes of this research was to identify if loyalty can be obtained through loyalty schemes. Are loyalty schemes able to reach large groups of shoppers? Another article in The Grocer from the 6th February 2010 entitled â€Å"retailers need to work harder to increase loyalty card appeal† was examined in order to answer this question. Research was conducted to find out how many loyalty cards are currently in operation in the UK and internationally. This will help gain an understanding of how rapidly loyalty schemes have grown in popularity over the last 15 years. A number of sources where found which featured sections that showed exactly how popular loyalty schemes were on a national and global basis in different years and the relevant figures are shown and analysed in the results section. One of the sources used is an article from (University Of Minnesota 2009) entitled Leveraging Multichannel Retailing: The experience of Tesco.com which describes how Tesco have grown to dominate the UK market. Figures were also taken from a case study in a book by Omar (1999) entitled Retail Marketing. An article from Media Week entitled â€Å"the brave new world of loyalty marketing† featured results from a state by state analysis by the COLLOQUY Loyalty Census which describes the popularity of loyalty cards on a global scale and by how much this has increased since 2007. Several major organisations were researched to find out which loyalty schemes had been successful and the reasons for this. Most major organisations now offer a loyalty program. How do independent retailers encourage loyalty? An article in the Grocer from the 5th February 2010 entitled â€Å"Independent chains seek to win loyalty with card schemes† helped to answer this question. Organisations value the customers loyalty and their purchasing activity data. However a lot of money is spent on loyalty schemes and therefore research was carried to find out whether loyalty schemes are worth investing in. An article from the BBC written on the 17th February 2003 entitled â€Å"The cost of Nectar loyalty† explains why this may not be the case. Dispute this many organisations have benefit from loyalty schemes and Tesco is definitely an example of this. A lot of research was therefore based around Tesco as they currently dominate the UK market. Page 17 of the Walters D, Hanarahan J (2000) book entitled Retail Strategy described some of the major benefits loyalty club members at Tesco receive. The article by the (University of Minnesota 2009) was also examined again because it described why Tesco had been so successful. Page 94 of this article described how Tesco were able to manage customer relations and use their ClubCard to aid direct marketing. Why Asda do not offer a loyalty scheme? The answer to this question can be found in the results section. The answer was taken from an article in the Grocer from the 7th November 2009 entitled â€Å"Why Asda rejected launching its own loyalty card scheme† explains exactly why. However another article in the Grocer from the 20th February 2010 entitled â€Å"Is Asda paying the price for not joining the loyalty club? Suggests reasons why this decision made by Asda may have been a mistake Asda are owned by Wal-Mart which is a major American retailer who currently has the 2nd largest database in the US behind the US government. T